The Code of Hammurabi is a Babylonian legal text composed during 1755–1750 BC. It is the longest, best-organized, and best-preserved legal text from the ancit Near East. It is writt in the Old Babylonian dialect of Akkadian, purportedly by Hammurabi, sixth king of the First Dynasty of Babylon. The primary copy of the text is inscribed on a basalt stele 2.25 m (7 ft 4+ 1 ⁄2 in) tall.
The stele was rediscovered in 1901 at the site of Susa in prest-day Iran, where it had be tak as plunder six hundred years after its creation. The text itself was copied and studied by Mesopotamian scribes for over a millnium. The stele now resides in the Louvre Museum.
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The top of the stele features an image in relief of Hammurabi with Shamash, the Babylonian sun god and god of justice. Below the relief are about 4, 130 lines of cuneiform text: one fifth contains a prologue and epilogue in poetic style, while the remaining four fifths contain what are gerally called the laws. In the prologue, Hammurabi claims to have be granted his rule by the gods to prevt the strong from oppressing the weak. The laws are casuistic, expressed as if ... th conditional stces. Their scope is broad, including, for example, criminal law, family law, property law, and commercial law.
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Modern scholars responded to the Code with admiration at its perceived fairness and respect for the rule of law, and at the complexity of Old Babylonian society. There was also much discussion of its influce on the Mosaic Law. Scholars quickly idtified lex talionis—the eye for an eye principle—underlying the two collections. Debate among Assyriologists has since ctred around several aspects of the Code: its purpose, its underlying principles, its language, and its relation to earlier and later law collections.
Despite the uncertainty surrounding these issues, Hammurabi is regarded outside Assyriology as an important figure in the history of law and the documt as a true legal code. The U.S. Capitol has a relief portrait of Hammurabi alongside those of other historic lawgivers. There are replicas of the stele in numerous institutions, including the headquarters of the United Nations in New York City and the Pergamon Museum in Berlin.
Hammurabi (or Hammurapi), the sixth king of the Amorite First Dynasty of Babylon, ruled from 1792 to 1750 BC (middle chronology). He secured Babylonian dominance over the Mesopotamian plain through military prowess, diplomacy, and treachery. Wh Hammurabi inherited his father Sin-Muballit's throne,
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Babylon held little local sway; the local hegemon was Rim-Sin of Larsa. Hammurabi waited until Rim-Sin grew old, th conquered his territory in one swift campaign, leaving his organisation intact.
Hammurabi had an aggressive foreign policy, but his letters suggest he was concerned with the welfare of his many subjects and was interested in law and justice.
Although Hammurabi's Code was the first Mesopotamian law collection to be discovered, it was not the first writt; several earlier collections survive. These collections were writt in Sumerian and Akkadian. They also purport to have be writt by rulers. There were almost certainly more such collections, as statemts of other rulers suggest the custom was widespread.
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As with the Code of Hammurabi, however, it is difficult to interpret the purpose and underlying legal systems of these earlier collections, prompting numerous scholars to question whether this should be attempted.
There are additionally thousands of documts from the practice of law, from before and during the Old Babylonian period. These documts include contracts, judicial rulings, letters on legal cases, and reform documts such as that of Urukagina, king of Lagash in the mid-3rd millnium BC, whose reforms combatted corruption. Mesopotamia has the most comprehsive surviving legal corpus from before the Digest of Justinian, ev compared to those from ancit Greece and Rome.
2.25 m (7 ft 4+ 1 ⁄2 in) stele. The stele is now displayed on the ground floor of the Louvre, in Room 227 of the Richelieu wing.
Hammurabi's Code Of Laws
At the top is an image of Hammurabi with Shamash, the Babylonian sun god and god of justice. Below the image are about 4, 130 lines of cuneiform text: One fifth contain a prologue and epilogue, while the remaining four fifths contain what are gerally called the laws.
225 cm (7 ft 4+ 1 ⁄2 in) high, with a circumferce is 165 cm (5 ft 5 in) at the summit and 190 cm (6 ft 3 in) at the base.
The Louvre stele was found at the site of the ancit Elamite city of Susa. Susa is in modern-day Khuzestan Province, Iran (Persia at the time of excavation). The stele was excavated by the Frch Archaeological Mission under the direction of Jacques de Morgan.
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Father Jean-Vinct Scheil published the initial report in the fourth volume of the Reports of the Delegation to Persia (Mémoires de la Délégation Perse). According to Scheil, the stele's fragmts were found on the tell of the Susa acropolis (l'Acropole de Suse), betwe December 1901 and January 1902.
Scheil hypothesised that the stele had be tak to Susa by the Elamite king Shutruk-Nakhunte and that he had commissioned the erasure of several columns of laws to write his legd there.
It has be proposed that the relief portion of the stele, especially the beards of Hammurabi and Shamash, was reworked at the same time.
The Code Of Hammurabi.
Over fifty manuscripts containing the laws are known. They were found not only in Susa but also in Babylon, Nineveh, Assur, Borsippa, Nippur, Sippar, Ur, Larsa, and more.
In the fourth volume of the Reports of the Delegation to Persia (Mémoires de la Délégation Perse). After a brief introduction with details of the excavation,
The Code was thought to be the earliest Mesopotamian law collection wh it was rediscovered in 1902—for example, C. H. W. Johns' 1903 book was titled The Oldest Code of Laws in the World.
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The glish writer H. G. Wells included Hammurabi in the first volume of The Outline of History, and to Wells too the Code was the earliest known code of law.
However, three earlier collections were rediscovered afterwards: the Code of Lipit-Ishtar in 1947, the Laws of Eshnunna in 1948, and the Code of Ur-Nammu in 1952.
However, this is an earlier estimate than ev the ultra-long chronology would support. The Code was compiled near the d of Hammurabi's reign.
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John Dyneley Prince called the Code's rediscovery the most important evt which has tak place in the developmt of Assyriological scice since the days of Rawlinson and Layard.
James Hry Breasted noted the Code's justice to the widow, the orphan, and the poor, but remarked that it also allows many of the old and naïve ideas of justice to stand.
For example, but ev Charles Souvay for the Catholic cyclopedia, who opined that unlike the Mosaic Law the Code was founded upon the dictates of reason.
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Scheil also held that the sce showed Shamash dictating to Hammurabi while Hammurabi held a scribe's stylus, gazing atttively at the god.
Martha Roth lists other interpretations: that the king is offering the laws to the god; that the king is accepting or offering the emblems of sovereignty of the rod and ring; or—most probably—that these emblems are the measuring tools of the rod-measure and rope-measure used in temple-building.
The prologue and epilogue together occupy one-fifth of the text. Out of around 4, 130 lines, the prologue occupies 300 lines and the epilogue occupies 500.
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The 300-line prologue begins with an etiology of Hammurabi's royal authority (1–49). Anum, the Babylonian sky god and king of the gods, granted rulership over humanity to Marduk. Marduk chose the ctre of his earthly power to be Babylon, which in the real world worshipped him as its tutelary god. Marduk established the office of kingship within Babylon. Finally, Anum, along with the Babylonian wind god lil, chose Hammurabi to be Babylon's king. Hammurabi was to rule to prevt the strong from oppressing the weak (37–39: dannum šam ana lā ḫabālim). He was to rise like Shamash over the Mesopotamians (the ṣalmāt qaqqadim, literally the black-headed people) and illuminate the land (40–44).
Hammurabi th lists his achievemts and virtues (50–291). These are expressed in noun form, in the Akkadian first person singular nominal stce construction [noun] ... anāku (I am [noun]).
The first nominal stce (50–53) is short: I am Hammurabi, the shepherd, selected by the god lil (ḫammurabi rē'ûm nibīt lil anāku). Th Hammurabi continues for over 200 lines in a single nominal stce with the anāku delayed to the very d (291).
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Hammurabi repeatedly calls himself na'dum, pious (lines 61, 149, 241, and 272). The metaphor of Hammurabi as his people's shepherd also recurs. It was a common metaphor for ancit Near Eastern kings, but is perhaps justified by Hammurabi's interest in his subjects' affairs.
His affinities with many differt gods are stressed throughout. He is portrayed as dutiful in restoring and maintaining temples and peerless on the battlefield. The list of his accomplishmts has helped establish that the text was writt late in Hammurabi's reign. After the list, Hammurabi explains that he fulfilled Marduk's request to establish truth and justice (kittam u mīšaram) for the people (292–302), although the prologue never directly referces the laws.
The epilogue begins (3144'–3151'): these are the just decisions which Hammurabi ... has established
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